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发表于 2015-8-11 11:45:13
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2013年1月12日托福考试真题分享——阅读部分
第一篇 植物开花与日照的关系
【机经回忆】
什么因素影响花期
植物通过感受不同光照事件长短，决定播种，科学家通过对叶子遮光处理，分为三种：不受光影响，长日照和短日照，检测植物的信号。但是最后还是没有收获，但是日照长短对植物的影响是明显的
【重点词汇解析】
sunlight 日光
long-day 长日照
short day 短日照
plant 植物
seed 种子
signal 信号
obvious 明显的
【机经解析】
光照长短对植物生长的影响
Light duration or photoperiod refers to the amount of time that a plant is exposed to sunlight. When the concept of photoperiod was first recognized it was thought that the length of periods of light triggered flowering. The various categories of response were named according to the light length (i.e., short-day and long-day). It was then discovered that it is not the length of the light period but the length of uninterrupted dark periods that is critical to floral development. The ability of many plants to flower is controlled by photoperiod.
Plants can be classified into three categories, depending upon their flowering response to the duration of darkness. These are short-day, long-day, or day-neutral plants. Short-day, (long nights) plants form their flowers only when the day length is less than about 12 hours in duration. Short-day plants include many spring and fall flowering plants such as chrysanthemum and poinsettia. Long-day, (short nights) plants form flowers only when day lengths exceed 12 hours. They include almost all of the summer-flowering plants, as well as many vegetables including beet, radish, lettuce, spinach, and potato. Day-neutral plants form flowers regardless of day length. Some plants do not really fit into any category but may be responsive to combinations of day lengths. The petunia will flower regardless of day length, but flowers earlier and more profusely under long daylight. Since chrysanthemums flower under the short-day conditions of spring or fall the method for manipulating the plant into experiencing short days is very simple. If long days are predominant, a black plastic sheet is drawn over the chrysanthemum for 12 hours daily to block out light until flower buds are initiated. To bring a long-day plant into flower when sunlight is not present longer than 12 hours artificial light is added until flower buds are initiated.
Light Duration
Light duration refers to the amount of time that a plant is exposed to sunlight. Travelers to Alaska often marvel at the giant vegetables and flowers that grow under the long days of the arctic sun even with cool temperatures
When starting transplants indoors, generally give plants 12 to 14 hours of light per day. Plant are generally intolerant of continuous light for 24 hours
Photoperiod
The flowering response of many plants is controlled by the photoperiod (the length of uninterrupted darkness). Photoperiod response can be divided into three types.
Short day plants flower in response to long periods of night darkness. Examples include poinsettias, Christmas cactus, chrysanthemums, and single-crop strawberrie
Long day plants flower in response to short periods of night darkness. Examples include onions and spinach
Day neutral plants flower without regard to the length of the night, but typically flower earlier and more profusely under long daylight regimes. Day neutral strawberries provide summer long harvesting (except during heat extremes)
光照长短对花期的形成和长短的影响
Bougainvillea plants were exposed to artificially reduced light intensity to capture different Photosynthetic Photon Flux Density (PPFD), 0% (direct sunlight), 30, 50 and 75% shading and to observe the effects of shading on flower formation and longevity, leaf chlorophyll and sugar content and quality of plants. Plant attained the greatest leaf size with maximum branching when seedlings were grown in 30 and 50% shading, whereas 0% shading showed the lowest value. Growth parameters related to the plant characteristics such as branch initiation, branch growth and potassium content increased under high shading treatments. Plants exposed to 0% shade showed the highest sugar content and the sugar content decreased by increasing shading. The low light intensity that results in decreased sugar and chlorophyll contents may be attributed to the reduction of flower initiation and in turn to the acceleration of flower abscission. In addition, more than 30% shading led to stop up flower initiation completely. Hence, it is suggested that 0% shading can be applied to maintain frequent flower initiation and flower longevity.
第二篇 英国农业的发展
【机经回忆】
这篇阅读讲英国农业如何在欧洲其他各国的农业**之前独自发展至小康水平。。。 英格兰的农业比欧洲其他国家发展的都早都好，其他国家在大战或者有瘟疫的时候英格兰都没受太大影响。还说英格兰农场主发现农业获利很大后，就采取了高产的农产品，新技术，把原来tenure的农民都化成了签约式的，而且签约前要交钱否则就用别人（此处有题，大概是说四个选项里哪个没有在文中提到）。还说到由于农场主采用了嫡长子继承制，所以没有土地仍然很集中。还举例如提高房租，改善耕种方式，还有开始做羊毛，并且出口至欧洲各国甚至美国。
【重点词汇解析】
agriculture 农业
European 欧洲的
England 英格兰
development发展
plague 瘟疫
farm 农场
benefit 利益
new technology 新技术
tenure 终身职位；任期；保有
farmer 农场主
the lineal primogeniture [,pra?mo'd??n?t??] system 嫡长子继承制
raise the rent 提高房租
improve the cultivation 提高耕种方式
wool 羊毛 export 出口
【机经解析】
英国农业采用新技术：New agricultural equipment
like cultivators, plows, threshers, mowers, combines, balers, etc. were invented and powered by oxen, horses, steam power, then gasoline or diesel as the farm machinery became mechanized and allowed the farmers to become ever more productive.
英国土地继承制度——嫡长子继承制
In England, primogeniture was mandatory for inheritance of land. Until the Statute of Wills was passed in 1540, a will could control only the inheritance of personal property. Real estate (land) passed to the eldest male descendant by operation of law. The statute added a provision that a landowner could "devise" land by the use of a new device called a "testament". The rule of primogeniture in England was not changed until the Administration of Estates Act in 1925.
Britain. The British property inherit system, emphasizing his absolute inheritance, which China and the lineal primogeniture system still has great distinction. The UK is the eldest son of the absolute primogeniture inheritance, son and daughter without property right of inheritance, they can only choose to join the army or to the monastery, so seventeenth Century England appeared a strange phenomenon: 1, join the army increased greatly. In 2, the monastery was the development of the cause of. 3, late marriage, even lifelong marriage.
primogeniture, in law, the rule of inheritance whereby landdescends to the oldest son. Under the feudal system of medievalEurope, primogeniture generally governed the inheritance of landheld in military tenure. The effect of this rule was tokeep the father's land for the support of the son who rendered therequired military service. When feudalism declined and thepayment of a tax was substituted for military service, the need forprimogeniture disappeared. In England, consequently, there wasenacted the Statute of Wills (1540), which permitted the oldestson to be entirely cut off from inheriting, and in the 17th cent.military tenure was abolished; primogeniture is, nevertheless, still customary in England.
第三篇 印加文明的记录
【机经回忆】
印加文明的记载（西班牙人记的）。
一个古代国家（好像叫luca）由于自己没有writing system，所以对于他们历史的记载都是西班牙人写的，不客观，有偏见和误差。例如同一条路线上的地方，不同writer给他们起了不同的名字。
词汇题 drawback=disadvantage just=fair
sequentially=one after another
【重点词汇解析】
drawback=disadvantage 缺点，不利条件
just=fair 公平的
sequentially [s?'kw?n??li] =one after another 从而；继续地；循序地
writing system 写字系统
Spain 西班牙
objective 客观的
bias 偏见
error 误差
writer作家
【机经解析】
印加文明无传统记录形式
Written Records of the Inca
But it did not have what most of the rest of the world would recognize as a writing system. No carved stone, no papyrus, no wedges pressed into clay, no lines painted on potsherds. Nothing like that.
Incan myths were an oral tradition until early Spanish colonists recorded them; however, some scholars believe that they may have been recorded on quipus, Andean knotted string records
西班牙统治者对印加文明记录的怀疑和压迫
Spanish Conquerors
A valuable source of early information is the work "The Second Part of the Chronicle of Peru" by Pedro de Cienza de Leon. He was a conquistador and wrote his account in 1540, seven years after Pizarro invaded the Inca territory. He describes the quipus as a means of recording economic output, census, the production of gold and silver objects, taxes and tributes and other numeric uses. He expresses his amazement at the Inca's track keeping of the empire's population, widows, workmen etc, all by means of quipus.
However, the new Spanish rulers were highly suspicious of the quipus. They feared that the 'secret' system might be used against them or that they might contain pageant symbols undermining Catholicism. The result was, that many quipus were destroyed.
第四篇 气温影响
【机经回忆】
太阳加热土地，而土地则加热与大地接触的空气，这样旅行者会觉得上层的空气会比脚部的空气要凉爽。气流的对流和空气的改变也很大的。最热的时候不是日当正午，而是出现在下午，但具体是什么时候要根据当地的条件和当天的天气情况来定。
【重点词汇解析】
heat 加热
accessible 可接触到的
air 空气
traveler 旅行者
cooler 凉爽
convection 对流
at noon 正当午
local condition 当地条件
weather 天气
【机经解析】
气流对流：午后是一天当中最热的时光
The highest temperature, particularly on a cloudless day in Summer occurs somewhere between 3 pm and 7 pm, with the most common time being around 5 pm, Daylight time. This is somewhat later than in Winter when the time of maximum temperature is somewhere between 1 and 3 pm.
You can think of it almost like baking something in an oven or warming something in a microwave. Even though the oven or microwave is putting a constant amount of energy into whatever you are cooking, it takes time for the food to warm up from the lower temperature that it started out at.
In the same way, it takes time for the Sun to heat the ground and therefore for the ground to heat the air above it. Since the maximum intensity of Sunlight occurs at local solar noon (which might be as much as an hour different from the Daylight time, depending on where you live in a time zone), the ground is warming throughout the morning, but its temperature can not catch up to the increasingly greater amount of energy that the Sun is providing (unlike the constant heat in the oven or microwave). After noon, the Sun continues to raise the ground and air temperature until more energy is lost to space than the ground can take in from the Sun. Therefore, there is a long lag between noon and the time of maximum air temperature. Having more than 12 hours of daylight in the Summer also contributes to pushing the maximum temperature time to the late afternoon
Daily Temperature Lag日常温度差
The lag is due to the fact that heating of the air occurs, not from the sun's rays passing though, but from heating of the ground and infrared radiation leaving the ground in the form of heat. This process takes some time, and it is also the reason it does not get chilly immediately after sunset.....there is residual warmth in the ground being radiated into the air producing some residual heating even after the sun has set.
If the warmth of the air resulted from the sun's rays passing through, then you would observe highest air temp. when the sun's rays were at their daily peak.
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发表于 2015-8-11 11:36:14
